Now that several months have elapsed l thought l would post my final degree essay. The subject is one which l found extremely interesting and enlightening. It is perhaps surprising how effective wordless picturebooks can be in the development of emotional and educational development. I apologise for the misalignment of the layout and the lack of images, however the full essay with images can be viewed here: Emma Horsfield final degree essay
Emma J. Horsfield
Critical and Cultural Studies
Module
code: 6FTC1035
Tutor: Alessandra Campoli
IDI /
University of Hertfordshire
Level 6: Degree Essay
Essay
title:
With emphasis on the wordless
genre, discuss ways in which pictures in picturebooks contribute to educational
and emotional development.
Date: 17
August 2016
Essay word count: 6,511
Captions word count: 448
Abstract word count: 92
Abstract
This study examines how [wordless]
picturebooks contribute to emotional and educational development. Research collected from a wide range of
current sources, together with analysis of picturebook examples using a range
of theories, illustrate how they cross cultural, generational and linguistic
boundaries to benefit a wide audience.
Findings from this research show that there is a great deal of evidence
to support the constructive use of wordless picturebooks across a range of
contexts and particularly within literacy, language and emotional development.
Key
words:
Wordless picturebooks, education,
emotional development, social imagination, early literacy
Contents
Chapter
|
Page
|
||
1.
Introduction
|
4
|
||
2.
Picturebooks and wordless picturebooks: a brief history
and background
|
5-6
|
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3.
How do pictures work and how do children learn to read
them?
3.1
Signs and Symbols
3.2
Illustration strategies
|
7-9
10-14
|
||
4.
Do pictures in picturebooks assist emergent reading
skills, visual literacy development and social imagination?
|
15-18
|
||
5.
Who benefits from wordless picturebooks?
|
19-24
|
||
6.
How do picturebooks deal with emotional issues and
challenges?
|
25-33
|
||
7.
Conclusion
|
34
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||
8.
Reference list
|
35-43
|
||
9.
Illustration list
|
44-45
|
||
1. Introduction
The modern picturebook is defined by
Salisbury and Styles (2012: 7) as being sequential imagery used in a particular
way, often in conjunction with words, which communicates meaning. However many picturebooks contain no text
within the story and so are therefore ‘wordless’. This essay will examine pictures in
picturebooks and investigate their relevance to emotional and educational
development in readers, focussing on wordless examples and those tackling
sensitive themes. Thorough analysis will
be made of evidence available from a range of current academic sources, as well
as consideration of picturebook examples as supporting evidence. A variety of theories will consider aspects
of images, including Semiotics, Redundancy and Entropy and Iconography and Iconology; with concepts
such as culture, age and language being important considerations
throughout. These concepts undoubtedly
contribute to reader understanding of images, and this essay will consider
these carefully before reaching conclusions.
Addressing a theme closely related to personal practice, the aim is to
show that, by studying available research and evidence how [wordless]
picturebooks contribute to educational and emotional development before conclusively
advocating their value as a learning resource tool.
2. Picturebooks and wordless picturebooks: a
brief history and background
Foundations were being laid for modern
picturebooks many years ago: among the tombs of ancient Egypt and structures in
Pompeii, stories were told using pictures in particular order. One of the oldest examples, Trajan’s Column
in Rome (fig.1) tells of Trajan’s successful battles during the second century
AD (Salisbury & Styles, 2012: 10); and The Bayeux Tapestry (fig. 2)
illustrates the Norman conquest
; importantly reading in chronological
order; left to right (McCloud, 1993: 12).
The modern printing press
invented in the fifteenth century by Johannes Gutenberg, saw the rise of book
printing (Palermo, 2014). From the
fifteenth century onwards, picturebooks began to appear, as ‘chapbooks’ (roughly
assembled pages of text and randomly selected images) were sold by pedlars in
the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries (Salisbury and Styles, 2012: 12-13). Commonly accepted as being the first
children’s picturebook, Orbis Pictus
(Comenius, circa 1657) illustrated words with pictures (Nodelman, 1988: 2). In the late eighteenth century William Blake
created children’s books combining text and image: Songs of Innocence and Songs
of Experience (Salisbury, 2005: 9), when lithography was introduced,
meaning colour no longer had to be added by hand. But the nineteenth century saw beginnings of
a golden age for colour printing; when children’s books began to flourish and
book illustration became a recognised, valued art form (Salisbury, 2005: 10). Funny Stories and Droll Pictures (Hoffmann, 1844) directly influenced
modern picturebooks, with its somewhat violent themes depicting consequences of
bad behaviour (Salisbury & Styles, 2012: 14); setting the tone for cross-over picturebooks to be discussed
later. Less fear arousing than
moral focussed publications for children in the sixteenth century, nineteenth century children’s books took a
more light hearted approach, as seen in Under
the Window (Kate Greenaway, 1878) and Randolph
Caldecott’s Picture books (1878-1884, British Library: n.d.).
; importantly reading in chronological
order; left to right (McCloud, 1993: 12).
The modern printing press
invented in the fifteenth century by Johannes Gutenberg, saw the rise of book
printing (Palermo, 2014). From the
fifteenth century onwards, picturebooks began to appear, as ‘chapbooks’ (roughly
assembled pages of text and randomly selected images) were sold by pedlars in
the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries (Salisbury and Styles, 2012: 12-13). Commonly accepted as being the first
children’s picturebook, Orbis Pictus
(Comenius, circa 1657) illustrated words with pictures (Nodelman, 1988: 2). In the late eighteenth century William Blake
created children’s books combining text and image: Songs of Innocence and Songs
of Experience (Salisbury, 2005: 9), when lithography was introduced,
meaning colour no longer had to be added by hand. But the nineteenth century saw beginnings of
a golden age for colour printing; when children’s books began to flourish and
book illustration became a recognised, valued art form (Salisbury, 2005: 10). Funny Stories and Droll Pictures (Hoffmann, 1844) directly influenced
modern picturebooks, with its somewhat violent themes depicting consequences of
bad behaviour (Salisbury & Styles, 2012: 14); setting the tone for cross-over picturebooks to be discussed
later. Less fear arousing than
moral focussed publications for children in the sixteenth century, nineteenth century children’s books took a
more light hearted approach, as seen in Under
the Window (Kate Greenaway, 1878) and Randolph
Caldecott’s Picture books (1878-1884, British Library: n.d.).
Caldecott pioneered the interplay between pictures and words, which no longer duplicated but complimented each other (Salisbury & Styles, 2012: 16). Unpatronising in approach by not focussing on moral lessons he consciously created them with adult and child appeal (Desmarais, 2006: xv); commonly becoming accepted as the founding father of picturebooks (Salisbury & Styles, 2012: 16).
 |
The picturebook can be defined as being where words and pictures are of equal importance, but this can be expanded to include books with pictures not necessarily aimed at children and not conforming to modern conventions (Salisbury, 2015: 9). This genre will be visited later in the essay.
Figure 1
(above left): Trajan's Column, detail, AD 113 (Source: crystalinks.com., n.d.)
Figure 2 (above right): Bayeux
Tapestry, 1080, fragment (Source: Kren, E., Marx, D., n.d., Web Gallery of Art,
n.d.)
3. How
do pictures work and how do children learn to ‘read’ them?
3.1 Signs and symbols
Semiotically, each part of the
picturebook functions as a sign having potential to contribute meaning to the
story (Sipe, 2001); with the importance of signs becoming more important in
texts unsupported by words. Wordless picturebooks have grown in
popularity over the last few decades: Dowhower (1997: 63) describes wordless
books as being where images rather than words tell stories and convey meaning. According
to Beckett (2012, in Arizpe, 2013) all books contain some words such as title
pages, or words within illustrations (e.g.
fig. 3 & 4). Some books are ‘almost
wordless’ with only one or two words making up the written narrative.
Figure 3: No! Words within illustration example
[16-17] (Source: McPhail, D., 2011. No! London: Frances Lincoln Children’s
Books)
Figure 4: No! Single word text illustration example [22] (Source: McPhail,
D., 2011. No! London: Frances Lincoln Children’s Books)
Pictures on a page are just marks made
with ink until our brains transform them into something meaningful (Rosenblatt,
2005:62) but the significance of pictures and visual representation in learning
has been apparent for centuries; when images conveying religious and moral
messages to communities (e.g. Lindisfarne Gospels, AD 715-20, in Brown, 2011: 35)
were necessary due to high levels of illiteracy. In early illustrated books, it is clear how
symbolism and cultural influences greatly impacted upon design and visual
communication.
Huitt & Hummel (2003), explaining
Piaget’s theory Pre-operational stage of
cognitive development suggest that what characterises human beings from
other animals is their reasoning and ability to use abstract symbolism; toddlers
begin demonstrating intelligence by memory, imagination and use of signs and symbols. Before speaking, children communicate using a
variety of gestures and symbols (Acredolo & Goldwyn, 1985, 1988, in De
Loache, 1991); making meanings from pictures through familiarity. From around two years old children have the
capacity to imagine an object is something else; can role-play, relate to
abstract objects and shapes as well as create simple drawings within the
context of reality; and through imitation, learn to create and relate to
symbols within their cultural framework (Rakoczy et al, n.d.). Semiotically
there is often little or no relationship between signifier [symbol or image used to depict something] and signified [object / theme being depicted
by signifier] and this is especially true with words; e.g. the word ‘cat’ bears
no resemblance to the cat itself (Nodelman, 1988: 5). The more signifiers
represent reality, the easier they are to understand (Graham, 1990: 7). So how do children learn to interpret images
which can bear little resemblance to depicted concepts? After conducting an experiment on a child who’d
had no exposure to pictorial representation for the first nineteen months of
life, Hochberg and Brooks (1962) found the child still able to name all objects
signified by outline drawings. Conclusions
showed the ability to read abstract imagery being intrinsic rather than taught.
3.2 Illustration strategies
Each aspect of picturebook
illustration contains meaning and conveys certain messages: success depends on numerous
factors including colour, line, medium and iconography being addressed
appropriately. Graham (1990: 42) says
illustrators draw attention to particular aspects of stories; using various
strategies to convey mood, atmosphere and emotion; considering carefully how
characters are depicted, as well as details such as clothing (including on
animals), colour and line. Every detail
is not required to communicate plot and character, and subtlety can be more
effective in conveying information and promoting intrigue in readers, an
approach currently being employed in personal practice to communicate sensitive
subject matter. Fig.5 shows an example
from The Lion and the Mouse (Pinkney,
2011) where, unlike the reader, Mouse is unaware of impending danger when
innocently climbing onto Lion’s back. Although
readers don’t see the whole lion they can identify it while being empowered by
knowing what character doesn’t. Page turners (gripping plots encouraging
readers to continue reading) are frequently used in successful picturebooks. The
Rainstorm (Lehman, 2007, fig.6) captivates: seemingly never ending spiral
staircases and doors entice readers to discover more, and as we know from the
title this wordless book concerns a bored boy on a rainy day; we expect
something exciting to happen. Titles of
books contribute significantly to understanding of visual text in wordless
picturebooks (Evans, 2015: 182; & Nodelman, 1988: 185).
Figure 5: Double page spread illustration from The Lion and the Mouse [10-11] (Source:
Pinkney, J., 2011, The Lion and the Mouse,
London: Walker Books).
Figure 6 : Double page spread
illustrations from The Rainstorm [14-15]
(Source: Lehman, B., 2007, The Rainstorm. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company).
Illustrators need cultural awareness
when creating picturebooks: culture undoubtedly plays a determining role in
interpretation of images, argues Kennedy (in Nodelman, 1988: 10). Colledge (2005)
stresses the importance of recognising culturally specific signifiers such as
stereotypes, gender roles, décor and dress in classroom environments; which all
affect individual understanding. Colour
has natural associations as well as cultural ones differing between societies:
black represents fear and death (Evans, 2015: 184); although in other countries
white symbolises grief; and blues tend to be universally representative of
serenity and spirituality (Beckett, 2012: 28).
Nikolajeva (2013) also addresses colour in images; saying that yellow
and green are often associated with joy, red with anger and black and grey with
distress. Knowledge of these and other
visual signs such as movement lines (common in comics), a zigzag mouth
representing anger, hair standing on end to show fear or a character cowering
in the corner to show isolation and distress, contribute to visual literacy and
can be practiced and encouraged. Graham
(1990: 32) discusses the importance of metaphor and symbolism in communicating
effectively to readers while deconstructing several picturebooks, including
wordless example The Snowman (Briggs,
2013, fig.7). She indicates that though
Briggs’ characters are simplistic; one line used to describe a smiling mouth, a
slight tilt of head and gentle movement of arms; they are memorable and
believable. In fact naively drawn faces
help children identify with characters as they place themselves within the character (Graham: 36). McCloud who argues that we only
see ourselves fully when we look in the mirror and thus simplify our view of
ourselves in our minds: we identify with
iconic abstraction to become the
character as opposed to observing
them (1993: 44-6); presenting a case for comic style representation in
promoting emotional connection.
Figure 7: Recto
page [11] sequential illustrations from The
Snowman (Source: Briggs, R., 2013, The
Snowman, London: Puffin Books)
First published in 1978 The Snowman is possibly one of the most
well known and pioneering wordless narratives; combining picturebook
illustration with comic style layout of panels and gutters. Its coloured pencil illustration is gentle and
soft flowing; enhancing delicate snow and the snowman himself. Calming, blue hues represent night with the contrasting
soft yellow warming light of home. Snowman has an air of innocence cleverly
depicted by subtle features, facial expressions and gentle body language
ensuring appeal to young readership. Simplistic
styling of the boy, invites readers to become
rather than observe him. In contrast to the calm and welcoming style
of the illustrations in The Snowman, Here
l am (Kim & Sanchez, 2014, fig. 8) has a confused and eclectic visual
language; powerfully conveying feelings of an immigrant child struggling to
settle in his new country.
Figure 8: Here l
am! Double page spread illustrations [6-7] (Source: Kim, P., & Sanchez,
S., 2014, Here l Am! London: Curious
Fox)
Often monochromatic schemes can be
more effective than colour at conveying meaning: Loup Noir [Black Wolf] (Guilloppe, 2004) uses binary opposites of
black and white to create mood.
Interestingly throughout the story, Wolf is black: telling viewers he is
to be feared; until the end when he becomes white: a twist informing readers Wolf
is misunderstood and not evil as expected.
Had the story been illustrated in full colour, contrast between binary
oppositional concepts good and evil, dark and light; and day and night would be
less powerful and clear. The illustrator
also uses many angles and perspectives to create surprise, such as aerial and
worm’s eye (Evans, 2015: 186-87, fig.9). Gestalt (unified whole) Psychology theorises that humans
perceive things not part of basic sensations (Boeree, 2000): Guilloppe employs
Gestalt principles: Closure (trees not
complete but reader knows from experience they are rooted in ground), Symmetry and Order (visual balance
achieved in the lower spread),
Continuation (footprints used to guide readers into the image along a path) and Figure
and Ground (white space creates trees and ground) effectively communicating
atmosphere. These principles are used by
illustrators to create visual intrigue, lead the eye to particular aspects of
images or create illusion. As we can see
illustrations play a key role in affecting reader inferences which in turn affects
how they learn, and feel emotion from texts.
Figure 9: Page fragment [p. 186]
from Challenging and Controversial
Picturebooks, showing Loup Noir
(Guilloppe, A., 2004) Opening 9 & Opening 11 double page spreads (Source:
Evans, J., 2015, Challenging and
Controversial Picturebooks: Creative and Critical Responses to Visual Texts,
Oxon: Routledge).
4. Do pictures in picturebooks assist
emergent reading skills, visual literacy development and social imagination?
Often as adults we assume being more
experienced readers, that we have better understanding of pictures, either in
isolation or in conjunction with text.
However very often children notice things we don’t, even though we are
actively seeking meaning (Styles, 2003: x).
This concept is beautifully illustrated in wordless picturebook Footpath Flowers (Lawson & Smith, 2016):
valuing the bird’s life, the child tenderly places flowers (symbolic of respect
and used at funerals) upon a dead bird gone unnoticed by the adult: showing
empathy and caring skills and emotionally engaging readers. The monochromatic scheme of this book and the
girl’s red coat assist readers in following the story who quickly realise she
is the protagonist. The layout and illustrations observe the Gestalt principle
of Continuation where the eye is led
along pathways to secondary elements (in fig. 10; literal pathways leading to
her father).
Figure 10: Double page spread [18-19] illustrations.
(Source: Lawson & Smith, Footpath
Flowers, London: Walker Books)
There is an argument against pictures
in children’s books: Protheroe (1992: 35-36) argued that they hinder imagination
and damage the capacity for intellectual growth and reading skills development. Bettelheim (1976, in Graham, 1990: 17)
suggested pictures are distracting and prevent personal meaning making; and Tolkien
(1964, in Graham: 17) famously claimed that illustrations add very little to
fairy stories. However, Arizpe and
Styles (2003) disagreed and their research indicates that pictures in
picturebooks contribute positively to developing literacy skills. Working with challenging picturebooks Zoo and The Tunnel (Browne, 1994; Browne, 1989, fig.11) which have multiple
layers of meaning, Arizpe and Styles asked children to describe pictures in
several sophisticated, multi-layered picturebooks to consider character
emotion, reasons behind actions of characters and why illustrators used colour,
perspective and body language in particular ways. The eighty-four children from different
cultural and economic backgrounds and seven primary schools, showed kLearning
to read pictures it seems, is a natural process of early childhood development
which can be nurtured by the utilisation of picturebooks within the educational
setting.
Figure 11: Browne, A., 2008, illustration from The Tunnel (Source: Brownsbfs.co.uk,
2014)
Revisiting
images assists in learning basic image sequencing and literacy conventions
before progressing onto more sophisticated meaning construction suggests Cohn (2014). WIt is important picturebooks be engaged with several times
before full potential for literacy development and meaning can be obtained.
5. Who benefits from wordless
picturebooks?
Wordless picturebooks are arguably one
of the most versatile communication tools available: having no words they
transcend cultural, gender and linguistic boundaries and often have
trans-generational appeal. Pope
Gregory the Great (circa 600, Brown, 2011: 37), and their positive contribution
to education cannot be denied. However,
images may cross cultural, social, national and economic boundaries, says
Protheroe, but they also compromise development of mathematical and reading
skills, scientific imagination and overall cognitive capabilities (1992: 7). Conversely, many scholars argue for the
benefits of picturebooks to educational and social learning, and we have seen
that images have always played an important role in storytelling.
Werner (1984, in Graham, 1990)
explains it is possible for even blind children to experience picturebooks;
though their minds must work harder to formulate images by using other senses. Comprehension can be achieved not only through
Braille, but by deployment of interactive features (flips, wheels, pop-ups); accompanying
audio; 3D printing and textured pages in wordless picturebooks. Tom Yeh, creator of the Tactile Picture Books Project is developing software allowing users
to create 3D versions of any picturebook, and has already produced famous
titles such as The Very Hungry
Caterpillar (Carle, E., 1969, in Goodreads. 2008) and Noah’s Ark (fig. 12): which shows raised image as well as Braille.
In a structured and organised setting all
ages with communication difficulties can benefit from using wordless
picturebooks as conversation starters and to develop speaking and listening
skills; this social interaction can enhance everyday verbal expression and help
towards psychological stability. Storytelling
is inherent in life, and interaction with this supports multi-modal learning
and communication skills as well as providing a platform for readers to relate
stories
to
their own feelings and experiences to aid comprehension (Waller & Black, 2012,
in Grove, 2013).
Figure 12: Yeh, T., et al, Noah’s Ark image reproduced in 3D, n.d. (Source: Dezeen.com, 2016)
Dowhower (1997: 64) suggests primary beneficiaries
from wordless picturebook reading are young children, culturally and
linguistically challenged individuals and those with special needs. It does seem that because of their universal
nature picturebooks now frequently address a range of social challenges: a
necessary approach, particularly so in a multi cultural modern society. A touching example dealing with disability as
a sub-plot, is wordless narrative The
Snow Rabbit (Garoche, 2015). The
narrative highlights ability as part
of disability (the disabled girl provides
comfort and security for her able bodied sister (fig.13).
Figure 13: The Snow Rabbit double page spread [34-35] (Source: Garoche, C.,
2015. The Snow Rabbit. New York:
Enchanted Lion Books)
One key difference between reading
books with print or without, is that readers apply their own voice to wordless
narratives, rather than the author’s. This
illustrates a partnership between author / illustrator and reader (Evans, 2015:
183). Weisner, illustrator of several
wordless picturebooks, claims he regularly receives feedback from teachers all
over the world who use his books as a means of developing creative writing and
discussions in class (in Richey & Puckett, 1992: vii). Clearly wordless narratives can open up a
wealth of communication possibilities with far fewer barriers than their
counterparts.
Considering immigrant children, Coultard
(2003, in Arizpe & Styles, 2003: 164-189) stresses that culture, personal
experiences and ways images [and text] have been approached previously, all
influence how wordless narratives are interpreted. Graham (1990: 83) says although images are
culturally specific and therefore present comprehension issues on some level, they
can also be used as a tool to aid mutual understanding in children from various
cultural backgrounds. However it is
inevitable that responses to visual texts will be diverse. Perhaps an ideal wordless picturebook for discussing
cultural differences is Mirror (Baker,
2010, fig. 14) which follows the story of two families in Australia and Morocco,
who live very different lives but still have so much in common. Galda & Short
(1993) argue that in developing visual literacy children gain deeper meaning
from literature and learn more about the world, and this book enables readers
to do that. The images are felt pieces and other materials which provide a 3D
feel; and pages from both books are read simultaneously to compare
cultures. The medium also provides warmth
to the images; welcoming readers into the scene as children remember craft
sessions at school or adults reminisce about fuzzy felt. The relevance of
medium in illustration and even how paint application conveys meaning, mood and
atmosphere is clear (Doonan, 1993: 13; Evans, 2015: 182; Nodelman, 1988: 74). Colourful soft felt pieces create a
significantly different atmosphere to solid monochromatic schemes (fig.9) or
eclectic paint splashes and scribble lines (fig.8).
Figure 14: Mirror, spreads from both books within the book (Source: Baker, J.,
Mirror, 2010, London: Walker Books)
Evans (1998: 81) acknowledges the value
of wordless picturebooks as a solid basis upon which to learn English as they
can be interpreted on a personal level by readers. Louie and Sierschynski (2015:
104) suggest that wordless picturebooks don’t confuse English learners and, as oral
discussion forms the basis of literacy development, so literacy practices
should make use of wordless picturebooks which aid discussion. Looking specifically at new English learners,
Louie and Sierschynski explore how classroom settings encourage language
development by using wordless narratives.
When broken down into small groups or pairs of learners, children have
opportunities to vocalise their perceptions of images, can stop, think,
self-correct and construct descriptive sentences: all aiding literacy learning
and communication. Protheroe who advocates
reading material without images, argues that teachers can suppress children’s
individuality by providing illustrated books and asking comprehension questions
(1992: 71); while Fisher, Frey, & Rothenberg (2008: 5-20) state that engaging
in meaningful conversation as opposed to simply answering questions is
especially important for English learners to achieve academic literacy. Beck & McKeown (2001, in Louie &
Sierschynski) also stress that self- correction (as opposed to teacher
correction) should be employed to enable creative language exploration, constructive
discussion and literacy learning. Thus it is important adults construct
environments in which children can freely express personal inferences without
being limited to rigid frameworks. Small
group discussions also aid deeper interpretation and enrich individual
understanding of wordless texts as participants attempt to construct meaning. They can then use pictures as tools for
creating written and oral output, and learning about literacy structure,
language and culture (Louie & Sierschynski). Immigrant children, and adults, are prime
beneficiaries from constructive use of wordless picturebooks. Images are a vital source of cultural
learning for newcomers to a country who have no knowledge about its language
and customs, argues Arizpe (2009: 134).
Wordless
picturebooks cross generational boundaries, thus appealing to any age; either
as an art object, source of nostalgia, therapeutic tool or as a means of
telling stories readers identify with (e.g. Tan’s The Arrival, fig. 20). Known
as cross-over picturebooks, those
tackling sensitive issues have cross generational appeal and contain
multi-layered meaning. The importance of
picturebook desirability to adults cannot be underestimated: many winners of children’s
literature prizes go to books with strong adult appeal (Beckett, 2012: 16). Furthermore, learning to read means being
able to identify different levels of meaning within a text (Goodwin, in Evans
2009); in reading development, the ability to construct inferences and imagine
more than shown on the page, is vital in learning to read and achieving full
engagement (Duke et al, 2004: 501-20;
Sweet & Snow, 2002: 17-53). Therefore,
cross-over books can provide an ideal platform for learning to read, raising
awareness of social issues and about the world we live in.
Personal practice currently sees the
illustration of a wordless picturebook based on a ‘real life’ Cinderella and
addresses themes such as child neglect, favouritism, bullying and emotional
abuse, so fits well in the cross-over category as well as addressing the
previous point. Often themes covered by
this genre of books can be described as challenging
or controversial, and Evans (2015: 11)
points out that depression [The Red Tree,
Tan, S., 2015, fig. 20-22], death [Granpa,
Burningham, J., 1984, fig.19], violence, drugs [Bird, Elliot, Z., & Strickland, S., 2008], war [Why? Popov, N.,1996, fig. 15 &16], and
bullying, although often considered unsuitable for children, are nothing new. Now far removed from their original form, the sanitisation
of fairy tales began in the nineteenth century due to regulation seeking to
protect children from having ‘improper thoughts and ideas’ argues Zipes (2013: 16);
suggesting that folk tales have a solid foundation in culture and values while
representing certain points in history (in Merriam, 2015). Originally not written for children, fairy
tales have changed greatly over the centuries and, cross culturally, around the
world, while remaining relevant and providing readers with material to identify
with and learn from. Lewis Carroll, Ruy
Vidal and Maurice Sendak also didn’t just target children (Beckett, 2012: 3-5)
and their books cross generational boundaries while also standing the test of
time. This reinforces intentions for
personal practice to be cross-generational in appeal and not being limited to
children. Where the Wild Things Are (Sendak, first published 1964) for example
is still a best seller; demonstrating Sendak’s approach in refusing to lie to
children (in Brockes, 2011) has paid off.
6. How do picturebooks deal with
emotional issues and challenges?
Figure 15 :
Double page spread [ 8-9] (Source: Popov, N., 1996. Why? New York: North South
Books Inc.)
Figure 16 : Double page spread [
38-39] (Source: Popov, N., 1996. Why? New York: North South Books Inc.)
As already discussed, illustrators
employ various strategies to convey meaning in images. Redundant (visually predictable) features are
possibly used more so in wordless picturebooks to ensure children understand narratives,
but entropic (visually unpredictable) features convey meaning on a deeper level
which often may only be fully understood by adults. Popov (Why?
1996) uses anthropomorphism (presenting animals to convey human emotions,
thoughts and actions) to explain the devastating consequences and futility of
war. Fig. 15 shows the two animals in a
green, pleasant setting with no worries in the world; until they begin waging
war against each other which quickly escalates out of control. At the end of the story fig. 16 shows bleak
contrast; war has destroyed the earth and all living things. Each animal has something which belonged to
the other (flower and umbrella have changed ownership) but both are
destroyed. It is perhaps unlikely that young
children would pick up on such entropic details on first viewing; however, as
seen wordless narratives can be revisited many times to identify deeper meaning. These multiple layers add narrative and
visual interest for all ages as well as being emotionally challenging. Redundant features such as green, sunny scenes
representing calm and happiness, and muddy, chaos depicting destruction are
easily understood and incite particular emotions in readers. Even young children recognise the
significance of colour and iconographical details such as broken vegetation
stumps and dull skies representing foreboding.
These two spreads alone convey emotion, and the author’s personal
experience of war undoubtedly contributes to the success of this emotionally
charged narrative. Personal involvement surely
contributes to illustrative success of such themes, and intentions are for current
personal work to produce highly effective outcomes on this basis.
Figure 17: Recto [17] page illustration (Source: Cole,
H., 2012, Unspoken: A Story from the Underground Railroad, New York: Scholastic
Press)
Figure 18: Verso [20] page
illustration (Source: Cole, H., 2012, Unspoken: A Story from the Underground
Railroad, New York: Scholastic Press)
This promotes empathy in readers as
they feel the girl’s pain.
Figure 19: Double page spread from Granpa [30-31]
(Source: Burningham, J., 2003, Granpa.
London: Red Fox).
Colledge (2005), after working with
bi-lingual children in promoting discussion of picturebook narratives, also
concluded that emotional connections and empathic responses were displayed by
children to characters in stories; indicating that discussing picturebook
stories can contribute to emotional development. This heightens social imagination, a concept
analysed by Lysaker and Miller (2013) when
recording responses of a second grade student to a wordless picturebook. They noted she could provide descriptions not
only of what is visible but also of thoughts and feelings of characters. She created roles for characters, established
and maintained relationships between them; made moral decisions and imagined
actions and events despite not within the illustrations. They concluded that wordless picturebooks help
to develop not only social imagination but also moral decision making.
The
Arrival (Tan, 2015), a wordless cross-over
book (fig. 20) takes the format of graphic novel, and hundreds of illustrations
provide readers with an immigrant man’s story, whose feelings of alienation,
fear and confusion are depicted by the use of surreal imagery throughout. Illustrations of surreal animals and unfamiliar
letterforms describe aspects of the new society and are striking in enabling
readers to empathise and feel his fear. The
innocence depicted in the man’s personality resembles that of the Snowman
(fig.7) earlier who also felt confused about the indoor environment. Tan’s The
Red Tree (2015) also uses a similar approach: surrealism conveys a dark mood
overshadowing emotions (fig. 21), metaphorical imagery connotes the girls’
isolation, entrapment in her emotions and depression (fig. 22); and a bright
red tree (iconographical symbol of life and growth) signals new beginnings and
happiness (fig. 23).
Figure 20:
Verso page of expressive illustration sequence [Chapter 2] (Tan, S., 2014,
The Arrival)
Figure 20:
Surrealism illustration example [10-11] (Source: Tan, S., 2015, The Red Tree. Sydney: Lothian
Children’s Books
Figure 21 (above left): Metaphorical illustration example [12-13]
(Source: Tan, S., 2015, The Red Tree.
Sydney: Lothian Children’s Books. Figure
22 (above right): Red Tree illustration
[34] (Source: Tan, S., 2015, The Red
Tree. Sydney: Lothian Children’s Books.
Even as young as three years old,
children can successfully describe character emotion through viewing pictures
(Tucker, 1970, in Graham, 1990); and development of empathy begins when the children
start recognising basic emotions such as fear, joy, anger or anguish (Evans,
1991, in, 2013). Picturebooks , and more
so wordless picturebooks which rely solely on images to communicate, reach out
to children in ways they can understand.
Words on pages stating characters are sad or frightened may not be fully
understood by young children, but illustrations of facial expressions, body
language and gestures expressing character emotion are easily identified with
(Nikolajeva, 2013). Nikolajeva argues
that cognitive theories indicate the mouth and eyes are dominant in conveying
emotion, which is why emoticons [simple iconic forms of human faces] are so
widely understood; reflecting points made earlier about The Snowman. Although we
easily respond to and understand gestures such as outstretched arms representing
joy, and perceive visual emotional clues such as spatial position, we also identify
with animal or inanimate objects as characters because, although we have no
direct experience of animals’ feelings, we anthropomorphise (assign human
emotion) so it makes sense (Nikolajeva).
In experiments recording child responses to emotional visual stimuli,
Nikolajeva says reactions to images are similar to real life responses to
similar stimuli: direct affective response caused by neurological signals and
biological conditioning. Our brains
react to images as if they were real life objects and situations to protect us
from possible danger (Blackmore, 2010: 325-41), so the skills needed to make
meaning from wordless narratives mirror those used in real life: skills which
develop through experience.
Although it is perhaps straightforward
to depict basic emotions such as happiness or sadness in illustration; social
emotions (which include more than one individual) are less easy to depict. For example jealousy and pride which aren’t
connected directly to external demonstrations are much more challenging and
difficult to interpret, though most world literature focuses on at least one
social emotion, including picturebooks (Nikolajeva, 2013). Nikolajeva also suggests that children
generally only emotionally identify with one character [the protagonist]
without trying to understand thoughts and feelings of the others as this
requires more complex social emotional understanding; but picturebooks provide
the perfect platform for developing skills of empathy and theory of mind
(understanding how others think) in young children; thus effectively
contributing towards emotional intelligence.
7. Conclusion
As we have seen, picturebooks, and particularly
wordless picturebooks due to their universality and lack of distractive
features, can contribute greatly to overall development of educational and
emotional learning. Their social and
educational advantages in classroom environments cannot be overlooked and advantages
for bi-lingual and immigrant children are clear, as shown in studies by Louie
& Siershinski and Colledge. Nikolajeva,
and Lysaker and Hopper among others show how picturebooks nurture empathy,
incite creative responses and encourage social imagination. Although there is an argument that pictures
damage children’s ability to learn to read (Protheroe, Bettelheim), a large body
of research shows enormous evidence to the contrary. In fact visual and verbal literacy and general
communication skills are seen to be enhanced by using wordless picturebooks; as
they cross linguistic, cultural, social and generational boundaries; encourage
verbal discussion and pictorial or written responses; and form emotional
connections and understanding in readers.
The genre encourages high levels of interaction between
peers, adult and child; thus extending understanding of a range of social and
moral issues.
This research certainly enhances and
informs personal practice as the wordless picturebook genre is my preferred
route of professional engagement. Aims
include creating my own wordless narratives and, building upon discoveries made,
l will certainly create more informed outcomes.
Conveying emotion powerfully and effectively is essential in picturebook
illustration: only becoming more vital in the wordless genre. Readers must be challenged so they can
construct meaning themselves, but simultaneously need to understand and relate
to illustrations in ways which don’t prevent them from understanding the
story. Wordless picturebooks can be
revisited many times and multiple layers of meaning provide new sources of discovery
as well as engagement for adults. The
books l produce will be primarily cross-over in nature as l seek to appeal to
broader audiences and explore difficult subjects l feel passionate about. This in itself presents challenges and needs
to be handled sensitively so that, although having cross-generational appeal,
they remain valid and suitable for young children. However my research is encouraging in this
respect and l am inspired by successful authors and illustrators such as
Maurice Sendak, Lewis Carroll and Ruy Vidal who didn’t just produce books for
children.
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9. Illustration List
Baker, J. (2010) Mirror. London: Walker
Books.
Briggs, R. (2013) The Snowman. London: Puffin Books.
Browne, A. (2008) The Tunnel [image online]. In Browns books for students. Available at: http://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Browne-Anthony/The-tunnel/9781406313291#
[Accessed: 29
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J. (2003) Granpa. London: Red Fox Books.
Cole, H. (2012) Unspoken: A Story
from the Underground Railroad. New
York: Scholastic Press.
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Garoche, C. (2015) The Snow Rabbit. New York: Enchanted Lion Books.
Guilloppe, A. (2004) Loup Noir opening 9 & Opening 11 spreads [images]. In Evans, J. (2015) Challenging and Controversial Picturebooks: Creative and Critical
Responses to Visual Texts. Oxon, UK: Routledge.
Kim, P, &
Sanchez, S. (2014) Here l Am! London: Curious Fox.
Kren, E., Marx, D. (n.d.) The
Bayeux Tapestry (c. 1080) Bayeux Tapestry fragment [image online]. In Wall Gallery of Art. Available at: http://www.wga.hu/html_m/zzdeco/2tapestr/2bayeux/index.html [Accessed: 26 July, 2016]
Lawson, J.,
& Smith, S. (2016) Footpath Flowers. London:
Walker Books.
Lehman, B. (2007) The Rainstorm. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
McPhail, D. (2011) No! London: Frances Lincoln Children’s Publishers.
Pinkney, J. (2011) The Lion and the
Mouse. London: Walker Books.
Popov, N. (1996) Why? New York:
North South Books Inc.
Tan, S. (2014) The Arrival. Melbourne: Lothian Books.
Tan, S. (2015) The Red Tree. Sydney, Australia: Lothian Children’s Books.
